Chapter 6.2
Food Security and Sovereignty

• ALL
• Remove Code Barriers
• Create Incentives
• Fill Regulatory Gaps

Aquaponics, Hydroponics, and Aquaculture

INTRODUCTION

Aquaponics, hydroponics, and aquaculture are developing methods of food production.[1] Hydroponics is the growing of plants without soil, and aquaculture is the farming of fish and other aquatic animals.[2] Aquaponics is the symbiotic combination of  hydroponics and conventional aquaculture, where the hydroponics helps filter the water for fish, and the aquaculture provides fertilizer for plants.[3]

Permitting aquaponics, hydroponics, and aquaculture can help provide food to a variety of communities.[4] The U.S. Department of Agriculture estimates that 23.5 million Americans live in a food desert, which means that they live more than one mile from a supermarket in urban or suburban areas.[5] As a consequence, many individuals do not have access to a reliable and sufficient supply of healthy food.[6] Many Americans also live in food swamps, where an overabundance of high calorie food “swamps out” healthy food options.[7] Food swamps are linked to increased rates of obesity and diabetes.[8]

There are many methods of aquaponics, hydroponics, and aquaculture meaning communities with different resources are all able to produce fresh vegetables and fish. Some methods do not require technology and are less complicated for small-scale operations.[9] Additionally, some methods are more expensive to implement, but can provide communities with substantial yields.[10]

Aquaponics, hydroponics, and aquaculture systems can be implemented in a variety of places.[11] These systems can be erected in large greenhouses where agricultural activity usually occurs.[12] Many urban and suburban areas have begun permitting vacant lots and rooftops to be used for these operations.[13] Additionally, some areas have begun converting abandoned industrial facilities for the use of aquaponics, hydroponics, and aquaculture.[14]

Recognizing the potential of aquaponics, hydroponics, and aquaculture, many local governments now allow these activities as permitted land uses. Some local governments allow aquaponics, hydroponics, and aquaculture by-right[15] or as an accessory use where other agricultural activities are permitted.[16] Similarly, some communities permit these activities as forms of urban agriculture.[17] Others permit them as accessory uses to urban farms and indoor market gardens.[18] Furthermore, some communities include aquaponics, hydroponics, and aquaculture as industrial uses.[19]

Some communities have gone further to ensure the development of aquaponic systems by permitting them by-right in all agricultural and residential districts.[20] Additionally, some communities permit aquaponics by-right wherever community gardens[21] and commercial greenhouses are permitted.[22]

EFFECTS

Aquaponic, hydroponic, and aquaculture systems can be efficient methods to provide communities with fresh, healthy food. Many fish can be raised in aquaculture and aquaponic systems including tilapia, trout, catfish, Arctic char, perch, and bass.[23] A variety of vegetables can be grown using aquaponic and hydroponic systems, such as lettuce, chives, spinach, basil, watercress, bell peppers, tomatoes, and cucumbers.[24] Since these food production methods can be established in almost any location, ordinances supporting them can be implemented in urban, suburban, and rural communities.[25] Additionally, technology involved in these food production methods continues to improve, leading to higher yields that may require less labor and lower production costs.[26]

Aquaponics, hydroponics, and aquaculture may also provide healthy food in food deserts and food swamps. Both food deserts and food swamps can be mitigated by the addition of fresh food vendors.[27] These food production methods can provide food deserts and food swamps with fresh, healthy food on a year-round basis.[28] Likewise, these methods can be extremely useful in urban areas that lack enough land to facilitate outdoor agriculture, thus improving food security in urban areas.[29] These food production methods can also provide citizens with locally sourced food through commercial vendors,[30] community gardens,[31] and home operations.[32]

In addition to providing many communities with fresh food, aquaponic and hydroponic systems may produce greater yields using less resources than many agricultural methods.[33] First, both aquaponics and hydroponics require about 1/10 of the space to grow the same crops that a conventional outdoor operation would require.[34] Second, studies have shown that aquaponics and hydroponics use between 5 percent and 15 percent of the water that would be required for the same production of crops using other methods.[35] Third, aquaponics and hydroponics require very little pesticides, and since the operations are usually conducted indoors, the pesticides should not leak into natural water supplies.[36] Lastly, aquaponics and hydroponics do not require soil, thus limiting the potential for soil loss or erosion.[37] However, no soil means hydroponic systems are not able to improve soil quality like some other agricultural methods are known to do.[38] No soil also presents concerns of hydroponic organic approval, because normally soil tests are required to certify that the plants have not been treated with any prohibited substances.[39]

Aquaponic and aquaculture systems may also help reduce overfishing of the oceans, by providing an alternative source for fresh fish.[40] Providing fresh fish to inland areas can also help reduce transportation costs associated with shipping seafood from coastal areas.[41] Furthermore, aquaponics provides a closed-loop system that recycles waste from the fish to use as fertilizer for the plants.[42] This means that aquaponic systems produce very little waste from the fish and require almost no fertilizer to grow the plants.[43]

Additionally, implementing aquaponic, hydroponic, and aquaculture systems in vacant lots can bring additional benefits.[44] Using these food production methods in vacant lots may transform empty space into useful areas to grow food.[45] Reusing vacant spaces has been shown to improve neighborhood aesthetics, decrease crime in the area, and increase property values.[46] Additionally, placing these systems on roofs has been shown to help insulate the building, leading to lower heating and cooling costs.[47] Furthermore, rooftop and community garden operations have been shown to help lower high temperatures associated with urban areas known as “heat deserts” (for more information on rooftop gardens see our brief Green Roofing).[48]

However, in addition to the benefits above, there are negatives that must be considered before permitting these operations. To begin, outdoor aquaculture facilities pose risks to the surrounding ecosystems.[49] Many outdoor aquaculture operations are performed in ponds, where the fish grown in aquaculture are sectioned off in a net or pen.[50] Many of these operations have fish that are not native to the ponds, which introduces the risk of invasive species.[51] It is essential that measures are in place to ensure that the non-native species do not escape.[52] Local governments have a few options to address this issue including regulating the fish that may be raised, regulating the design of facilities, and permitting aquaculture to occur in only certain locations.[53]

Outdoor aquaculture also presents risks of water pollution. High concentrations of antibiotics are used in aquaculture to ensure higher yields for farmers.[54] Too many antibiotics can pollute the surrounding ecosystem of the pond.[55] Furthermore, too many antibiotics pose the risk of antibiotic resistant bacteria developing in fish and animals that eat the fish.[56] To combat this issue, local governments can regulate the use of antibiotics including banning certain antibiotics and regulating concentrations of antibiotics in use.[57]

In addition, raising many fish in one area causes a large build up of fish excrement, which contains large amounts of ammonia, decomposing organic matter, and some other potentially harmful chemicals.[58] The use of nitrifying bacteria, which converts ammonia to less harmful molecules, can help lower concentrations of ammonia.[59] Furthermore, implementing hydroponics into aquaculture operations to create an aquaponic facility can help filter the fish waste, lowering the levels of harmful chemicals.[60]

Similarly, outdoor hydroponic facilities pose some environmental risks of their own. Some hydroponic growers use pesticides to help increase their yield.[61] Additionally, some hydroponic growers use fertilizers to further enhance yields.[62] Outdoor hydroponic facilities must be constructed to ensure that these chemicals are not able to leak into surrounding water supplies. Implementing aquaponic operations instead of hydroponics can also help reduce the need for fertilizer, because fish excrement provides the majority of the required nutrients.[63]

Many of the negative effects of hydroponics and aquaculture can be reduced through the implementation of indoor aquaponic facilities. Indoor facilities can lower the risk of environmental pollution and invasive species. Furthermore, as mentioned above, aquaponic systems can help filter fish excrement and reduce the need for fertilizer.[64] However, commercial indoor aquaponic systems can be expensive to erect, and may not be economically feasible for many growers.[65] Additionally, aquaponic systems require extensive technical knowledge and constant upkeep to operate efficiently.[66] Lastly, indoor aquaponic facilities may require high energy demands for lighting, temperature control, and humidity.[67] There are some negatives that must be considered when deciding to permit aquaponics, hydroponics, or aquaculture.

EXAMPLES

Rome, NY

Rome, New York, permits aquaponics and aquaculture by-right anywhere that agriculture is the principle use.[68] Rome permits aquaponics and aquaculture as accessory uses in areas that are not primarily used for agriculture.[69] To ensure that these activities are safe, they must be performed in facilities designed to hold and raise fish.[70] Additionally, these activities must be performed in partially or fully enclosed facilities that have plenty of space and shade.[71] Although Rome requires aquaponics and aquaculture to be performed indoors, it does not require a building permit to erect a structure.[72]

To view the provision see Rome, NY, Code of Ordinances § 80-13.2 (d) (2018).

Oklahoma City, OK

Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, permits aquaponics and hydroponics in all community gardens.[73] Community gardens are permitted on any lot as either a principal or accessory use.[74] Oklahoma City’s ordinance permits aquaponics and hydroponics throughout the city on any lot, meaning the city has great access to these operations.[75] To ensure these operations are performed safely, the owners of the facilities must take measures to prevent infestations of insects and other pests.[76] Residents of Oklahoma City have great access to aquaponics and hydroponics, and they don’t need to be concerned by animal infestations that could damage neighboring lots.[77]

To view the provisions see Oklahoma City, OK, Code of Ordinances §§ 59-8150.6.1, 59-9350.19.1 (2019).

Gilcrest, CO

Gilcrest, Colorado, lists hydroponics, aquaculture, and aquaponics as examples of “urban agriculture.”[78] Gilcrest defines a zone for urban agriculture as a plot of land that is five acres or smaller designated for the production of food.[79] Per the ordinance, urban agriculture is permitted by-right in agricultural districts.[80] In addition, urban agriculture is also permitted by-right in every residential district.[81]

Gilcrest permits urban agriculture in many of its zoning districts.[82] Urban agriculture is a way for the city to promote the production of locally grown food. Gilcrest has designed its zoning districts to promote the production of food near residential areas.[83] This is an adequate way to provide residential areas with both food security and sovereignty.

To view the provisions see Gilcrest, CO, Municipal Code §§ 16-13, 16-24 (2019).

Somerville, MA

Somerville, Massachusetts, includes aquaponics and hydroponics as permitted operations for commercial farming and greenhouses.[84] Commercial farming and greenhouses are permitted by-right and as a special use in several districts.[85] Furthermore, commercial farming and greenhouses are permitted on municipal land, in municipal buildings, and on municipal roofs.[86] Somerville permits aquaponics and hydroponics to occur in many areas of the City.[87] Ordinances that encourage aquaponics and hydroponics in many areas promote greater urban food production,[88] increase utility of vacant lots,[89] and can provide insulation to buildings within the City.[90]

To view the provisions see Somerville, MA, Zoning Ordinances §§ 7.11-7.12 (24) (2018).

ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES

Beaufort County, SC, Community Development Code § 4.1.340 (2020) (permitting aquaponics as an accessory use in any district that permits agriculture and crop harvesting).

Milton, FL, Unified Development Code § 9.3 (D) (2019) (permitting aquaponics and aquaculture by-right anywhere agriculture is a principal use, and as an accessory use in other districts).

Ypsilanti, MI, Code of Ordinances § 122-431 (2018) (permitting aquaponics, hydroponics, and aquaculture by-right in production, manufacturing, and distribution districts).

Fontana-on-Geneva Lake, WI, Code of Ordinances § 18-27, 18-59 (2018) (permitting aquaponics as a conditional use in its Agricultural Holding District, including aquaponics under “indoor food production”).

Pontiac, IL, Code of Ordinances § 103-81 (2017) (permitting aquaponics as a special use in three zoning districts).

Minneapolis, MN, Code of Ordinances § 537.110 (2020) (permitting aquaponics, hydroponics, and aquaculture as accessory uses to urban farms and indoor market gardens).

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

USDA, Urban Agriculture Tool Kit (2016), https://perma.cc/UF2S-4QLC.

Steve Diver, ATTRA, Aquaponics- Integration of Hydroponics with Aquaculture (2009), https://perma.cc/5SEF-PGA2.

Aquaculture and Aquaponics, UC Davis, https://perma.cc/CG5Y-K6KW (last visited July 8, 2020).

Alexandria Brewer, Ctr. for Sustainable Sys. Univ. of Mich., Barriers and Incentives to Engaging with Aquaponics Systems: Empirical Evidence from São Carlos, Brazil (2019), https://perma.cc/4DD4-SH2C.